encourage employees to concentrate on developing a wide range of skills

enable employees to recognize and confront dominant corporate models and to develop

alternative models

make important policy decisions alone and then require employees in the corporation to

abide by those decisions

instill confidence in employees because of their willingness to make risky decisions and

accept their consequences

are concerned with offering employees frequent advice and career guidance

Carefully defining one’s job description and taking care to avoid deviations from it

Designing mentoring programs that train new employees to follow procedures that have

been used for many years

Concentrating one’s efforts on mastering one aspect of a complicated task

. Studying an organizational problem, preparing a report, and submitting it to a corporate

leader for approval

Analyzing a problem related to productivity, making a decision about a solution, and

implementing that solution

They should encourage employees to put long-term goals ahead of short-term profits.

They should exercise more control over employees in order to constrain production

costs

They should redefine incentives for employees’ performance improvement.

They should provide employees with opportunities to gain new skills and expand their

capabilities.

They should promote individual managers who are committed to established company

policies.

endorse a traditional corporate structure

. introduce a new approach to corporate leadership and evaluate criticisms of it

explain competing theories about management practices and reconcile them

contrast two typical corporate organizational structures

propose an alternative to a common corporate approach

using public funds to create jobs

teaching new skills to displaced workers

allowing displaced workers to retire

controlling the movement of capital

encouraging workers to move to where jobs are available

increased public spending for social services

placement of workers in jobs for which they are not qualified

higher wages for those workers who have skills that are in demand

an increase in the length of time jobs remain unfilled

a shift in the government’s economic policy priorities

the inflation rate is unusually high

there is insufficient technological innovation

the level of structural unemployment is exceptionally low

the jobs available in certain places require skills that the labor force in those areas lacks

the workers in some industries are dissatisfied with the pay offered in those industries

a socioeconomic problem that can only be addressed by government intervention

a socioeconomic problem that can be characteristic of periods of structural unemployment

an economic problem that results from government intervention in management-labor relations

an economic problem that results from imperfect applications of technology

an economic problem that can be eliminated by relatively small changes in the labor force

clarifying the definition of a concept

proposing a way to eliminate an undesirable condition

discussing the sources and consequences of a problem

suggesting ways to alleviate the effects of a particular social policy

evaluating the steps that have been taken to correct an imbalance

such shifts are frequently accompanied by upswings in the economy

such shifts usually occur slowly

workers can be encouraged to move to where there are jobs

normal attrition is often sufficient to reduce the size of the work force

workers are usually flexible enough to learn new skills and switch to new jobs

explaining why one method of earthquake prediction has proven more practicable than an alternative method

suggesting that accurate earthquake forecasting must combine elements of long-term and short-term prediction

challenging the usefulness of dilatancy theory for explaining the occurrence of precursory phenomena

discussing the deficiency of two methods by which researchers have attempted to predict the occurrence of earthquakes

describing the development of methods for establishing patterns in the occurrence of past earthquakes

differences in magnitude among earthquakes

certain phenomena that occur prior to earthquakes

variations in the intervals between earthquakes in a particular area

differences in the frequency with which earthquakes occur in various areas

the unreliability of short-term earthquake predictions

typically occur some distance from the sites of the large earthquakes that follow them

are directly linked to the mechanisms that cause earthquakes

are difficult to distinguish from major tremors

have proven difficult to measure accurately

are not always followed by large earthquakes

The historical record confirms that most earthquakes have been preceded by minor tremors.

The average interval between earthquakes in one region of the San Andreas Fault is 132 years.

Some regions tend to be the site of numerous earthquakes over the course of many years.

Changes in the volume of rock can occur as a result of building stress and can lead to the weakening of rock.

. Paleoseismologists have been able to unearth and date geological features caused by past earthquakes.

They suggest that the frequency with which earthquakes occurred at a particular site decreased significantly over the past two millennia.

They suggest that paleoseismologists may someday be able to make reasonably accurate long-term earthquake predictions.

They suggest that researchers may someday be able to determine which past occurrences of minor tremors were actually followed by large earthquakes.

They suggest that the recurrence of earthquakes in earthquake-prone sites is too irregular to serve as a basis for earthquake prediction.

They indicate that researchers attempting to develop long-term methods of earthquake prediction have overlooked important evidence concerning the causes of earthquakes.

They can identify when an earthquake is likely to occur but not how large it will be.

They can identify the regions where earthquakes are likely to occur but not when they will occur.

They are unable to determine either the time or the place that earthquakes are likely to occur.

They are likely to be more accurate at short-term earthquake prediction than at long-term earthquake prediction

They can determine the regions where earthquakes have occurred in the past but not the regions where they are likely to occur in the future.

the risks of boomerang effects are minimized when the conclusions an advertiser wants the consumer to draw are themselves left unstated

counterargumentation is likely from consumers who fail to draw their own conclusions regarding an advertising claim

inferential activity is likely to occur even if consumers perceive themselves to be more knowledgeable than the individuals presenting product claims

research on consumer memory suggests that the explicit conclusions provided by an advertiser using the hard-sell approach have a significant impact on decision making

the information presented by an advertiser using the soft-sell approach may imply different conclusions to different consumers

Its overall message is readily grasped

It appeals to consumers’ knowledge about the product.

It makes explicit claims that the advertised brand is superior to other brands.

It uses statements that are expressed very clearly

It makes claims in the form of direct conclusions.

motivation for consumers to think about the advertisement’s message

information that implies the advertiser’s intended conclusion but leaves that conclusion unstated

subtle evidence that the advertised product is superior to that of competitors

information comparing the advertised product with its competitors

opportunity for consumers to generate their own beliefs or conclusions

point out the risks involved in the use of a particular advertising strategy

make a case for the superiority of one advertising strategy over another

illustrate the ways in which two advertising strategies may be implemented

present the advantages and disadvantages of two advertising strategies

contrast the types of target markets for which two advertising strategies are appropriate

It reiterates a distinction between two advertising strategies that is made in the first paragraph.

It explains how a particular strategy avoids a drawback described earlier in the paragraph.

It suggests that a risk described earlier in the paragraph is less serious than some researchers believe it to be.

It outlines why the strategy described in the previous sentence involves certain risks for an advertiser.

It introduces an argument that will be refuted in the following paragraph.

have been exposed to forceful claims that are diametrically opposed to those in an advertiser’s message

have previous self-generated beliefs or conclusions that are readily accessible from memory

are subjected to advertising messages that are targeted at specific markets to which those consumers do not belong

are confused regarding the point of the advertiser’s message

come to view the advertiser’s message with suspicion

Implicit conclusions are more likely to capture accurately the point of the advertiser’s message than are explicit conclusions.

Counterargumentation is less likely to occur if an individual’s beliefs or conclusions are readily accessible from memory.

The hard-sell approach results in conclusions that are more difficult for the consumer to recall than are conclusions resulting from the soft-sell approach.

When the beliefs of others are presented as definite and forceful claims, they are perceived to be as accurate as self-generated beliefs.

Despite the advantages of implicit conclusions, the hard-sell approach involves fewer risks for the advertiser than does the soft-sell approach.

They have been applied in practice.

They rely on the use of a device that measures tension.

Their purpose is to determine an unknown mass.

They can only be applied to small solid objects.

They involve attraction between objects of similar mass.

The speed with which one star orbits the other

The gravitational attraction between the stars

The amount of time it takes for the stars to circle one another

The distance between the two stars

The combined mass of the two stars

The first paragraph provides an illustration useful for understanding a procedure described in the second paragraph.

The first paragraph describes a hypothetical situation whose plausibility is tested in the second paragraph.

The first paragraph evaluates the usefulness of a procedure whose application is described further in the second paragraph

The second paragraph provides evidence to support a claim made in the first paragraph.

The second paragraph analyzes the practical implications of a methodology proposed in the first paragraph.

the distance between the two stars in the system

the time it takes for each star to rotate on its axis

the size of the orbit the system’s two stars occupy

the degree of gravitational attraction between the system’s stars

the speed at which the star system moves through space

analyze a natural phenomenon in terms of its behavior under special conditions

describe the steps by which a scientific measurement is carried out

point out the conditions under which a scientific procedure is most useful

contrast two different uses of a methodological approach in science

explain a method by which scientists determine an unknown quantity

describing a resource and indicating various methods used to study it

presenting a theory and offering an opposing point of view

providing an explanation for unexpected findings

demonstrating why a particular theory is unfounded

resolving a disagreement regarding the uses of a technology

suggest a way in which IT can be used to create a competitive advantage

provide an illustration of the “productivity paradox”

emphasize the practical value of the introduction of IT

cite an industry in which productivity did not stagnate during the 1980s

counter the argument that IT could potentially create competitive advantage

IT is not a resource that is difficult to obtain

IT is not an economically valuable resource

IT is a complex, intangible resource

economic progress has resulted from IT only in the service sector

changes brought about by IT cannot be detected by macroeconomic measures

It presents two explanations for the success of IT

It provides evidence that decreases in productivity will continue.

It presents reasons for a decline in productivity.

It demonstrates the effect IT has had on productivity.

It contrasts views concerning the degree of IT’s success.

Human resources alone are more likely to contribute to competitive advantage than is IT alone.

Human resources combined with IT are more likely than human resources alone to have a negative effect on competitive advantage.

Human resources combined with IT often have a negative effect on competitive advantage.

IT by itself is much more likely to have a positive effect than a negative effect on competitive advantage.

The positive effect of IT on competitive advantage increases with time.

Recommendations regarding effective ways to use IT to gain competitive advantage

Explanations of the advantages and disadvantages of adopting IT

Information about ways in which IT combined with human resources could be used to increase competitive advantage

A warning regarding the negative effect on competitive advantage that would occur if IT were not adopted

A belief in the likelihood of increased competitive advantage for firms using IT

Investments in IT would not result in increases in productivity until the 1990s.

Investments in IT did not lead to expected gains in productivity.

Productivity in the retail industry rose less rapidly than did productivity in other industries.

The gains in productivity due to the introduction of IT were not reflected in macroeconomic measures of productivity.

Most gains in productivity occurred in the service sector and were therefore particularly difficult to measure.

Even when IT gives a firm a temporary competitive advantage, that firm is unlikely to continue to achieve productivity gains.

The competitive advantages conferred by a firm’s introduction of IT are outweighed by IT’s development costs.

A firm’s introduction of IT is less likely to limit its ability to achieve productivity gains than to enhance that ability

Although IT by itself is unlikely to give a firm a competitive advantage, IT combined with other resources may do so.

Although IT by itself is unlikely to give a firm a competitive advantage, a firm that does not employ IT cannot achieve a competitive advantage.

The rats escaped from ships that had been in Asia.

The rats were immune to the diseases that they carried.

The rat population was larger in medieval Europe than Twigg believes it actually was.

The rat population primarily infested densely populated areas.

The rats interacted with other animals that Twigg believes could have carried plague.

Determining the death rates caused by the Black Death in specific regions and towns

Demonstrating how the Black Death intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages

Presenting evidence to prove that many medieval epidemics were mislabeled

Arguing that the consequences of the Black Death led to the Renaissance and the rise of modern Europe

Employing urban case studies to determine the number of rats in medieval Europe

The decay of European feudalism precipitated by the Black Death

Greater availability of employment, sustenance, and housing for survivors of the epidemic

Strengthening of the human species through natural selection

Better understanding of how to limit the spread of contagious diseases

Immunities and resistance to the Black Death gained by later generations

Dismissive

Indifferent

Vindictive

Cautious

Ambivalent

Attractive compensation packages for employees

Opportunities for employees to receive training

Long-term job security for employees

Opportunities for employee advancement within a company

Long-term commitment toward a company by employees

the hope that a smaller workforce will decrease the managers’ own workloads

shareholder pressure to generate increased short-term financial gains

a desire to eradicate the idea of a “psychological contract”

dissatisfaction with the performance of disgruntled employees

a desire to appear to be following modern organizational trends

Organizations tend to operate more effectively when they have a high manager-toemployee ratio.

Organizations can move their operations to less-expensive locations more easily when they have fewer permanent employees.

Organizations have found that they often receive higher-quality work when they engage in outsourcing.

Organizations with large pools of permanent workers risk significant financial losses if the demand for their product or service decreases.

Organizations are under increasing pressure to adopt new technologies that often obviate the need for certain workers.

It suggests an alternative explanation for a phenomenon discussed earlier in the passage.

It provides data intended to correct a common misconception.

It further weakens an argument that is being challenged by the author.

It introduces a specific piece of evidence in support of a claim made at the beginning of the final paragraph.

It answers a question that is implicit in the preceding sentence.

evaluating the evidence of a major geologic period and determining its duration

describing an evolutionary phenomenon and speculating about its cause

explaining the mechanisms through which marine life-forms evolved during a particular period

analyzing the impact on later life-forms of an important evolutionary development

contrasting a period of evolutionary change with other such periods

They were more drastic than those associated with other radiations.

They may have created conditions favorable to the evolution of many new life-forms.

They may have caused the extinction of many of the marine species living in shallow waters.

They may have been a factor in the development of new species adapted to living both on land and in water

They hastened the formation of the extensive dry regions found in the western United States

It points out that the events described in the passage may be atypical.

It alludes to the fact that there is disagreement in the scientific community over the importance of the Ordovician radiation.

It concludes that the evidence presented in the passage is insufficient to support the proposed hypothesis because it comes from a limited geographic area.

It warns the reader against seeing a connection between the biological and geologic changes described in the passage.

It alerts the reader that current knowledge cannot completely explain the relationship suggested by the evidence presented in the passage.