The decline of the Qing Dynasty’s influence in Pacific trade.

Economic instability and competition for low-wage labor in the American West.

A significant decrease in the number of Chinese migrants entering the United States.

The successful integration of Asian migrants into American political parties.

The global spread of Enlightenment ideals regarding universal citizenship.

The transition from coerced labor systems to free-market industrial labor.

The rise of Nativism and racial prejudice in receiving societies.

The collapse of the "coolie" trade in Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.

The British "Kangani" system in Ceylon and Malaya.

The establishment of the "White Australia" Policy.

The signing of the Treaty of Nanjing after the Opium Wars.

The expansion of the Devshirme system in the Ottoman Empire.

Migration in the 19th century was primarily caused by environmental disasters like the Irish Potato Famine, but a secondary cause was economic opportunities in the U.S.

While many 19th-century migrants moved voluntarily to seek higher wages in industrializing nations, the primary cause was the combination of environmental disasters and coercive labor systems.

Migration was primarily caused by economic factors.

Migration in the 19th century was primarily caused by environmental disasters like the Irish Potato Famine, but a secondary cause was economic opportunities in the U.S.

While many 19th-century migrants moved voluntarily to seek higher wages in industrializing nations, the primary cause was the combination of environmental disasters and coercive labor systems.

Migration was primarily caused by economic factors.