Cognitive MASTER SLIDES

“The Cognitive Revolution”

1. Around the 1950’s psychologists began to explore

cognition to further understand behavior.

2. Prior to this, ‘observable behavior’ was studied and

this shift was called the Cognitive Revolution.

3. Cognitive Psychologists suggested that humans form

internal mental representations to guide behavior.

4. Topics such as memory, perception, artificial

intelligence, amnesia and social cognition are studied.

Basic Information

Cognitive psychology is concerned with how
people acquire, store, transform, use and
communicate information.

Cognitive psychologists rejected the behaviorist
assumption which stated that mental events or
states were unsuitable for scientific research.

Believe that one cannot fully explain behavior in
terms of stimulus-response connections
(behaviorism)

This approach deems the person as important

as environmental or biological stimuli alone.

Key Concepts of Cognitive Psych

Schema Theory

Information Processing

Memory

Heuristics and Problem Solving

Cognitive Dissonance

Perception, attention, memory, language

Basic Assumptions

1. Mental processes guide behavior!

- Psychologists see the mind as a complex

machine—rather like an intelligent,
information processing machine using
hardware (brain) and software (mental images
or representations).

- Cognitive processes actively organize and

manipulate information that we receive -
humans are NOT passive responders to
their environment.

- Reconstructive memories, perception and info-

processing arise out of this idea.

The Necker Cube: A visual test of perception.

Look at the object for a few seconds: Is the red dot on the near or far
corner? What happens if you stare at the red dot for a few seconds?

- The images has two meaningful representations and the brain switches
back and forth between them, because the brain does not know which
way to interpret it.

2. Mental processescanand should be

investigated scientifically.

- Cognitive Psychologists believe that you cannot

simply learn about behavior through stimulus-

response interactions.

- therefore cognitive psychologists develop

theories and use a number of scientific
research methods to learn about human
cognition

3. Cognitive Processes are influenced by

social and cultural factors.

- Ex. Frederic Bartlett, who coined the term schema, states
that cultural schemas influence remembering.

Schema: A mental representation of knowledge.

Cognitive Processes

The human mind is sophisticated and has the
ability to manipulate abstract symbols,
words and images

These mental representations are organized
into categories, and allow us to think about
situations and imagine what may happen.

Mental Representations are how we store
images and ideas in memory.

I. A Theory of Cognitive Process: Schema Theory

Created by Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969), he carried
out studies on reconstructive memory to show how
humans process information using pre-existing
“schemas”.

Read a Native American story “The War of the Ghosts” to
20 English participants and found that as the story was read
more to them their recall of the story dropped from 330
words to about 180 and often substituted bits of the story to
match previous experiences.

The recalled story gradually became more Western as items
such as the ‘canoe’ was changed to a ‘boat’. The ghosts
were often forgotten because they are not an important
feature of Western culture.

This indicates that memory is influenced by our existing
knowledge, which in turn is created by the culture in which
we live

Schema Theory is a cognitive process about information
processing. They are “organizational frameworks of the
mind”.

It can describe how specific knowledge is organized and
stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used
when it is needed.

One cannot see a schema inside someone else’s head,
but psychologists believe it gives us insight into the
mind nonetheless.

Schema theory suggests that humans are active
processors of informationand so when it a certain
situations we use our schemas as templates dictating
how to react or behave.

Cognitive Schema: can be defined as networks of knowledge,
beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world.

Evaluation of Schema theory

Strengths:

It is clear that schema theory pertains to how
we categorize information and interpret
stories and make inferences.

It has contributed to our understanding of
“memory distortions” (Bartlett)

Social psychologists often refer to “social
schemas” in explaining the origins of
prejudice and stereotyping.

It supports the idea that culture can effect our
way of thinking (memory).

Limitations:

It is not clear how schemas are acquired in
the first place and how they actually
influence our cognitive processes.

Furthermore, some say that the concept of
schemas are too vague (Cohen, 1993) and
thus are not useful.

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Discuss how social or

cultural factors affect

one cognitive process.

Identify and evaluate

schema theory with

reference to research

studies.

What short stories do you

remember from your

childhood?

Aim(s):

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

REVIEW SLIDE: Schema theory

– Mental frameworks used to organize information.

Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema and stated that
cultural schemas influence remembering.

One cannot see a schema, but psychologists believe it
gives us insight into the mind.

Schema theory suggests that humans are active
processors of information.

REVIEW SLIDE: Schema Theory

See the handout and read through Bartlett’s Study on
Reconstructive Memory.

Summarize Bartlett’s contribution to Cognitive
Psychology

Identify and evaluate schema theory with reference

to research studies.

Bartlett’s Study of

Reconstructive Memory

Try to remember what is happening in the image
that will flash on the screen.

(Allport & Postman, 1947)

Many recalled that a white man had been
threatened with a razor by a black man.

SCHEMA THEORY

Schema theory indicates that prior expectations
will influence our perceptions.

Stereotypes will lead to changes in how we
subsequently remember information.

REVIEW SLIDE:

Evaluation of Schema theory

Strengths:

Contributed to our understanding of “memory
distortions” (Bartlett)

“Social schemas” can explain the origins of
prejudice and stereotyping. (Cultural Impact)

Limitations

:

It is not clear how schemas are acquired in the first

place and how they actually influence cognitive
processes.

REVIEW SLIDE:

Evaluation of Schema theory

Big Idea

Explain how memory is shaped by

cultural factors.

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Outline Principles that

define the Cognitive

L.O.A and explain how

these principles may be

demonstrated in

research.

(Principle/Assumption #2:

The mind can be studied scientifically

–

Using

the case of Loftus and Palmer, 1974)

What is eyewitness

testimony? Do you believe it

is reliable? Explain.

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

Loftus and Palmer, 1974

(The reliability of eye-witness testimony?)

The Study Overview (with video): http://www.simplypsychology.org/loftus-palmer.html

Elizabeth Loftus

Psychology professor and expert researcher on the

malleability and reliability of memory, an instrumental
figure in cognitive psychology.

Loftus and Palmer

Smashed: 41

Collided: 39

Bumped: 38

Hit: 34

Contacted: 32

Follow up

One hundred and fifty participants
– Smashed:
– Hit:
– Not asked:

1 week later: Did you see broken glass?

Follow up

1 week later: Did you see broken glass?

Smashed: 32%

Hit: 14%

Not asked: 12%

Criticisms - Method

LOW Ecological Validity

Why?

The experiment was not typical of real life situations.

Two kinds of information go into a person's

memory of an event:

1st:

the information obtained from an event

2nd: the information supplied after the event

Over time, the information from the two sources

may be integrated that we are unable to tell from
which source some specific detail is recalled. All
we have is one 'memory'. (Reconstructive
hypothesis)

ABC NEWS LIVE EXPERIMENT

Aired 11/10/17

The reliability of eye-witness testimony?

http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/video/expert-explains-eyewitness-testimonies-
unreliable-solving-crimes-51054920

Close

How does Bartlett’s work relate to the work

of Elizabeth Loftus?

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Evaluate two models or

theories of one

cognitive process:

Memory.

What lesson do you remember

most from this class, this

year? Why do you think that

is the case?

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

II

.

Evaluate two models or theories of one

cognitive process:

Memory

Most people take memory for granted

--

until they forget

something. Yet the fact that we remember more often than

we forget tends to lead us to overlook the underlying

complexity of memory as a cognitive process.

Many important researchers contributed to what we

understand about memory and how our brains store,

acquire and process memories.

Memory Games

(

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/dont_forget/index.html

)

Short

–

Term Memory

Information is selected by attention from

sensory memory into STM. This allows us to

retain information long enough to use it.

Peterson and Peterson

(1959) have

demonstrated that STM lasts approximately

between

15 and 30 seconds

, unless people

rehearse the material, while Miller (1956) has

found that STM has a limited capacity of

around 7+/

-

2 ‘chunks’ of information.

LTM provides the lasting retention of

information, from minutes to a lifetime. Long

term memory appears to have an almost

limitless capacity

. LT information seems to

be encoded mainly in terms of

meaning

.

Long Term Memory

A.

The “

Multi

-

Store Model

”

-

S

imilarly to the analogy that our brain processes information

similar to a

computer

,

Atkinson and

Shiffrin

(1968)

proposed a

three

-

stage processing

model of memory.

Sensory memory

→

short term memory

→

long term memory

Models are based on two assumptions

:

1.

M

emory consists of a # of separate “stores”

2.

M

emory processes are sequential :

attention

→

coding

→

rehearsal

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vW5zAY4RhOs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egzvLaP3498

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model – 1968
(Multiple-Store Model of Memory)

Multi-Store Model Song: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vmpRKsk_nk

1.

Only a small amount of information makes past the

sensory

memory

to Short Term Memory (

STM)

. The capacity of STM is

limited to around 7 items for 6

-

12 seconds.

2. Rehearsal is an important factor if info is to get to

Long Term

Memory (LTM)

.

3. LTM

is described as a vast storehouse of information. Memories

may often be distorted when they are retrieved but we fill in the

gaps as predicted by schema theory.

Criticism to Atkinson-Shiffrin

The model is too simplistic. Does not
accommodate for the subdivisions of STM and
LTM memory stores.

Evidence of the Multi

-

Store

Model of Memory

S

erial Position

E

ffect

refers to the finding that

recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's

position within a list.

–

When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free

recall), people tend to begin recall with the

end

of the

list, recalling those items best (the

recency

effect

).

–

Among earlier list items, the

first

few items are recalled

more frequently than the middle items (the

primacy

effect

).

Graph showing the

serial position effect,

the vertical axis

shows the percentage

of words recalled, the

horizontal axis shows

their position in the

sequence

One suggested reason for the primacy effect is that the initial

items presented are most effectively stored in

long

-

term memory

because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them.

One suggested reason for the

recency

effect is that these items

are still present in

working memory

when recall is solicited.

Items that benefit from neither (the middle items) are recalled

most poorly.

B.

The “

Working Memory Model

”

Created by

Baddeley

and Hitch

(1974) in which they

proposed their

‘working memory model’ as an alternative to the short

-

term store in

Atkinson &

Shiffrin's

'multi

-

store' memory model (1968). This model

builds off of the multi

-

store model. However, they believe that STM is a

single store and is broken down into many components.

Attempts to

describe a more accurate model of Short Term Memory (STM).

1.

The Central Executive

:

controlling

system that monitors

and coordinates the operations of other components, which

are called “

slave systems

”

-

most important job is “

attentional control

” which is

accomplished in two ways:

a.

Automatic level

is based on habit and controlled more

or less automatically by stimuli from the

env’t

.

b.

Supervisory Attentional Level

: deals w/ emergencies

or creates new strategies when the old ones are no

longer sufficient.

2. The Episodic Buffer: the role of the buffer is to act as

a temporary and passive display store until the information

is needed – much like a television screen.

3. The Phonological Loop: divided into two components

a. Articulatory control system, orinner voice, which can
hold information in a verbal form. (ex. When you try to
remember a telephone # and repeat it to yourself.)

b. Phonological Store, or inner ear. It holds speech-based
material in a phonological form.

4. The Visuospatial Sketchpad: also called the inner eye;

and deals w/ visual and spatial info from either sensory
memory or LTM.

The Working Memory Model
(Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

SONG: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4gg6Xd1teZ0

Evidence of Working Memory

Today we use “dual-task techniques” to illustrate the
presence of working memory.

This is when you ask the participant to carry out a
cognitive task while carrying out another and hope
that the 1st task is “interfering the 2nd”.

If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one
or both are impaired, it is believed that both tasks
use the same component of STM.

Evaluation

of the Model

It includes active storage and processing, which makes it

useful for explaining a variety of cognitive tasks, more so

than the multi

-

store model.

This model is able to explain why people are able to

perform different cognitive tasks simultaneously without

disruption

-

“multi

-

tasking”

Work done by

Gathercole

(2001) has given us insight of

how disruption of working memory is associated with

deficits in academic performance.

–

Ex. He says that deficits in the phonological loop lead to deficits

in mathematics and reading.

Eysenck

(1988) found that

ind

v

diff. in intelligences may

depend on diff in working memory.

Application & Criticism

The working memory model explains many
practical observations, such as why it is
easier to do two different tasks (one verbal
and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g.,
two visual.) However, the concept of a
central executive has been criticized as
inadequate and vague – Further research is
being conducted.

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Explain how
biological factors
affect one cognitive
process: brain
damage → memory

In what ways do you think

your brain impacts your

memory?

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

III. Explain how biological factors affect one
cognitive process: brain damage → memory

A.

Hippocampus

:

•

Research by Kandel found that the hippocampus is
important in the formation of explicit memories
(fact based info)

•

Case studies have shown that damage here results
in the inability to form new explicit memories but
still can form newimplicit memories (procedural
and/or emotional memories)

B.

Amygdala

•

Found to play a role in the storage of

emotional

memories

•

According to LeDoux, certain memories have
emotional significance and this might explain why
memories based on emotional events are
remembered better.

•

Could give us insight into PTSD (post-traumatic
stress disorder) and why some have problems
forgetting, because emotional memories are
difficult to get rid of.

Biological Connection to Memory

The Amygdala

emotional memory

The Hippocampus

explicit memory

C.

Brain Damage and Memory

1. Clive Wearing: he suffers from both

anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

- Anterograde amnesia: the inability to make new

memories

- Retrograde amnesia: the inability to remember

old memories

- MRI scans show damage to Clive’s

hippocampus and some frontal regions.

Clive Wearing

“The Man with no Long Term Memory”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y
(General - 3 minutes)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c62C_yTUyVg
(Overview of Case - 13 minutes)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BrCBq2FY_U

(Overview of Brian - 9 minutes)

2. “H.M.” (1926-2008)was one of the most famous and

important case studies to modern cognitive neuroscience and
our understandings of memory.

Described by Brenda Milner and William Scoville (1957)

(1953) HM had a partial resection of his medial temporal lobe
(MTL) as an attempt to stop his epileptic seizures.

Medial Temporal Lobe

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKP6tBhM2T4 (2 minutes)

After the surgery he suffered from severe
anterograde amnesia (inability to make new
memories after the trauma): although his working
memory and procedural memory were intact, he
could not commit new events to long-term
memory.

He also suffered moderate retrograde amnesia, and
could not remember most events in the 3–4 -day
period before surgery, and some events up to 11
years before, meaning that his amnesia was
temporally graded.

However, his ability to form long-term procedural
memories was still intact; thus he could, as an
example, learn new motor skills, despite not being
able to remember learning them.

1. Craik and Lockhart (1972)

The levels of processing framework was presented as an
alternative to theories of memory.

States that stimulus information is processed at multiple levels
simultaneously depending upon its characteristics. Furthermore,
the "deeper" the processing, the more that will be remembered.

Ex: information that involves strong visual images or many associations with

existing knowledge will be processed at a deeper level.

- Similarly, information that is being attended to receives more processing
than other stimuli/events.

The theory also supports the finding that we remember things
that are meaningful to us because this requires more processing
than meaningless stimuli.

Other Theories of Memory…..

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Discuss how Social and

Cultural Influence

affect

one Cognitive

Process.

Evaluate the extent to

which the cognitive

process is reliable.

cohnitive

process

Do you believe eyewitness

testimony is reliable? Explain

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

V. Discuss how Social and Cultural

Influence effect one Cognitive Process:

It should be of no surprise that cognition is
influenced by the environment around you.

With globalization and modern technology it
requires all of us to have specialized education

- think about how much we have to learn and need to memorize from

school (math, psychology, language etc.)

According to Jerome Bruner, children of any culture
learn the basics of culture through schooling and
daily interaction with members of the culture in
which they live.

A. The role of schooling on remembering

Research has shown that memory tests done on
Western cultures do not always give the same data in
other regions of the world.

1. Cole & Scribner (1974): Memory strategies in

different cultures:

- Compared word recall between US and Kpelle

people of rural Liberia.

- Realized that they could not use the same words for

both cultures so they started to observe daily
activities of Kpelle people, so words were more
relevant.

- compared data from school vs. non-school children

in Liberia.

- Asked children to recall as many items as possible from 4

categories: utensils, clothes, tools, and vegetables.

Results:
a.

Children without schooling could not increase recall even
after practicing. Remembered 10 items the first time and
only 2 more after 15 practice trials

b.

Children with schooling learned list just as quickly as US
children and used similar techniques such as “chunking”

c.

In a later trial, the researchers presented the objects in a
story (narrative). The illiterate children recalled the objects
more so.

d.

Other studies confirm these results (Rogoff & Wadell,
1982) found that Mayan children could easily recall objects
if put into a meaningful story format.

REVIEW SLIDE:

A Theory of Cognitive Process: Schema Theory

Created by Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969), he carried
out studies on reconstructive memory to show how
humans process information using pre-existing
“schemas”.

Read a Native American story “The War of the Ghosts” to
20 English participants and found that as the story was read
more to them their recall of the story dropped from 330
words to about 180 and often substituted bits of the story to
match previous experiences.

The recalled story gradually became more Western as items
such as the ‘canoe’ was changed to a ‘boat’. The ghosts
were often forgotten because they are not an important
feature of Western culture.

This indicates that memory is influenced by our existing
knowledge, which in turn is created by the culture in which
we live

REVIEW SLIDE:

Schema Theory is a cognitive process about information
processing. They are “organizational frameworks of the
mind”.

It can describe how specific knowledge is organized and
stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used when it
is needed.

One cannot see a schema inside someone else’s head, but
psychologists believe it gives us insight into the mind
nonetheless.

Schema theory suggests that humans are active processors
of informationand so when it a certain situations we use our
schemas as templates dictating how to react or behave.

Cognitive Schema: can be defined as networks of knowledge,
beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world.

REVIEW SLIDE:

Evaluation of Schema theory

Strengths:

It is clear that schema theory pertains to how we
categorize information and interpret stories and make
inferences.

It has contributed to our understanding of “memory
distortions” (Bartlett)

Social psychologists often refer to “social schemas” in
explaining the origins of prejudice and stereotyping.

It supports the idea that culture can effect our way of
thinking (memory).

REVIEW SLIDE:

Limitations:

It is not clear how schemas are acquired in
the first place and how they actually
influence our cognitive processes.

Furthermore, some say that the concept of
schemas are too vague (Cohen, 1993) and
thus are not useful.

VI. Reliability of one cognitive process: Memory

How reliable is memory? Recently legal systems
have learned more towards DNA evidence because
of the inconsistencies of memory.

“Reconstructive memory” allows one to explain
how memory may be influenced by other factors

1. Frederic Bartlett:
- his “War of the Ghost” experiment showed how

culture effects the reconstructive process of
memory and how schemas influence memory
recall.

- Stated the more complicated the story, the more

elements will be forgotten or distorted.

2. Elizabeth Loftus

The most horrifying idea is that what we believe
with all our hearts is not necessarily the
truth.(Loftus, 1996)

Dr. Elizabeth F. Loftus, a professor of psychology
and expert researcher on the malleability and
reliability of repressed memories, is an
instrumental figure in cognitive psychology.

She has done innumerable studies of over 20,000
subjects showing that eyewitness testimonies are
often unreliable and that false memories can be
triggered in up to 25 percent of people merely by
suggestion or giving of incorrect post event
information (Niemark,1996).

The aimof this study was to investigate later
information, particularly famed
questions, influences a witness's memory for that
event. In asking her subjects to recall an event, she
attempts to replicate how eyewitnesses reconstruct
their memories

She showed people film of traffic accident and
quizzed them about that they saw. First, she
showed her subjects a video of a car accident.
Then, in her experimental groups she would either
ask the participants to estimate how fast the car was
going when it “smashed” or “hit.” the car.

Depending on how the question was posed, they
answered differently whether they had seen glass or
not.

Misinformation effect: incorporating
misinformation into ones memory of the event. Her
research demonstrates a flaw in the validity of
eyewitness testimony

http://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htm

They argue that two kinds of information go into a
person's memory of an event (Loftus & Palmer, 1974)

1st: is the information obtained from perceiving

an event (e.g. witnessing a video of a car

accident),

2nd: is the other information supplied to us after

the event (e.g. the question containing hit

or smashed).

Over time, the information from these two sources

may be integrated in such a way that we are unable
to tell from which source some specific detail is
recalled. All we have is one 'memory'. This
explanation is often referred to as the
reconstructive hypothesis

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Discuss the use of

technology in

instigating cognitive

processes.

Take out your cognitive

review packet and turn to

question

3.7

addresses

the

aim

questions.

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

VII. Technology & Cognitive Processes

PET scan: has allowed neuroscientists to develop

methods to detect the signs of Alzheimer’s
earlier than ever before.

- research as NYU has developed a brain-scan-based

computer program that illustrates early warning
signs of memory degradation in Alzheimer’s by
showing diminishing metabolic activity in the
hippocampus.

MRI and fMRI: both provide 3-D pictures of
brain structures.
– Based on oxygen consumption, the more an area

uses oxygen the more active it is.

– Used to see what areas are active when cognitive

processes such as reading, problem solving and
memory are happening.

– Even used in marketing popular products

“neuromarketing”

(ex. Clinton Kilts, Pepsi/Coke taste test @ Emory: showed

that the ventral putamen was involved in selecting sodas)

See 3.7 in Cognitive Review Packet

The Cognitive Level of Analysis

Evaluate one theory of

how emotion may affect

one cognitive process.

To what extent do

cognitive and biological

factors interact in

emotion?

Take out your cognitive

review packet and turn to

questions 3.8 & 3.9 which

address the two aim questions.

Aim:

Do Now:

Homework:

See Agenda

Cognition and Emotion:

Tries to answer the questions about why we easily
remember some things but not others:

Famous brain researcher, Antonio Damasio, explains
that emotions are purely physical signals of the body
which react to external stimuli. Feelings arise when
the brain interprets these emotions.

Emotions consist of three components:
1. Physiological changes
2. The person’s own subjective feelings
3. Associated behavior

VIII. To what extent do cognitive and
biological factors interact in emotion

The amygdala appears to be critical in emotional
perception and memory.

Studies of animals and humans indicate that stress
hormones such as adrenaline are released when
strong emotions are evoked.

A. In the Emotional Brain (1999) Joseph LeDoux

described two biological pathways of emotions in
the brain.

1. Short route: from thalamus to amygdala
2. Long route: passes via the neocortex/amygdala and

hippocampus

- the amygdala receives input and projects them to

areas of the brain stem that help control emotional
responses such as the “fight or flight” response.

- According to LeDoux, it is advantageous that the

amygdala is flexible in where it receives and
transmit emotional information. Allows us to
perceive danger quickly and further evaluate
stimuli which are not threatening (think before
you act)

B. Lazarus’s Theory of Appraisal

(Complete the reading/handout(s) provided)

C. Brown & Kulik (1977): Flashbulb theory

A flashbulb memory is a memory created in great
detail during a personally significant event, often a
shocking event of national or international importance.

They found highly emotional memories (e.g. hearing
bad news) were often vividly recalled, even some time
after the event.

Ex: a great many people can remember where they were

when they heard of the terrorist attacks on September
11, 2001

IX: Other Cognitive Theories/Concepts:

A. Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance Theory = the theory that we
act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel
when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are
inconsistent

Festinger & Carlsmith’s famous study ( )
developed the cognitive dissonance theory
to explain the results of their experiment.

The Experiment:

First, they asked people perform
a boring task (separating spools into groups
of 12 and turning a square peg ¼ a turn).
Then, in two experimental groups they
gave participants either $1 or $20 to tell an
evaluator that they enjoyed the experiment.

They found that the subjects in the $1 were
more likely to actually believe that they
enjoyed the experiment.

Explain - why that is?

B. Free Will vs. Determinism

Cognitive Psychology developed as a
reaction against behaviorism which
emphasizes determinism.

However, the cognitive approach states that
a person actively thinks about their behavior
therefore they should be able to change
these cognitions on their own free will.

Some refer to cognitive psychologists as
“soft determinists”

Soft determinism: Thesis of determinism is true
and is compatible with freedom, because freedom
requires two elements: capability (“I can”) and
desire (“I want to”). A free act is a voluntary act
that nothing prevents me from performing.

The CLOA does address both biological
and environmental influence, yet does not
say that we are simply born pre-
programmed or simply passive responders
to our surroundings!!!

X. Cognition and Therapy
1.) Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Therapy (1973,1993)

- is a clinical application of cognitive principles blended
with behavioral principles.

- This cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) rests on the
idea that inappropriate and self-defeating beliefs are
the root of psychological disorders.

2.) Aaron Beck, another cognitive psychotherapist, has a

similar view on therapy based on the belief that anxiety
promoting patterns of thinking are what cause anxiety
and depressive disorders (Beck, 1976; 1993).

XII. Controversies and Criticisms

The largest controversy within the perspective is in
assessing the validity of the approach.
– Some say that lack of experimental evidence for the

approach make the perspective overly simplified and
theoretical.

Ecological validity – the validity that a principle observed in
a laboratory setting has outside of that setting, in the field, in
the real world. OR a studies ability to be generalized to the
masses.

Since there is difficulty in saying what conditions are natural
or normal (some field experiments may be conducted under
very unusual circumstances, while laboratories are human
social situations too),

Other’s praise the perspective’s ability to explain behaviors that the
learning perspective cannot and for its functional explanation of
psychology. Furthermore the cognitive approach is particularly strong
when it is combined with ideas from other approaches.

http://cranepsych.com/Psych/Cognitive_pers_validity.pdf

XIII. Methods Used

Laboratory experimentation

-Clinical interviews

-Verbal protocols

-Ethical considerations

Easiest Method to write about:Lab
experimentation

Laboratory Experiments

- used as the primary method of research for

cognitive psychologists

- Strength: is that all variables can be controlled
- Limitation: suffers from ecological validity and

artificiality

• Brain Technology:
- today, fMRI and CT scans offer the possibilities to

look into brain processes within the ‘active’
brain, giving us insight into the workings of the
mind.

XIV. Evaluation/Analysis of this
Approach

Strengths:

- It investigates many areas of behavior ignored by

the learning perspective, using rigorous
scientific methods.

-Explanations at a functional, psychological level

rather than a reductionist approach.

-It has combined with other perspectives to

strengthen its explanations - e.g.
neuropsychology.

Weaknesses:

- Overly simplistic - computer model disregards the

complexity of human behavior.

-Overly hypothetical
-Objectification of its participants
-Question of mundane vs. psychological reality
-Sampling is YAVIS (Eyseneck) Young, attractive, verbal,

intelligent, successful, the syndrome of personal qualities that
counselors, therapists, and people in general supposedly find most

appealing in their clients or associates