​REFERENCE GROUPS

• is a group to which we compare ourselves. It serves as a standard to which we measure our behaviors and attitudes. This group are used in order to guide our behavior and attitudes and help us to identify social norms.

• this groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individuals or other group’s characteristics and sociological attributes. It acts as a frame of reference if an individual wants to be part of the norms of the group.

• used as the frame of references for evaluating one’s own behavior.

• serve as referring points of individuals, towards which they were oriented and which influences their opinion, tendency and behavior. Group to which an individual or another group is compared.

TYPES OF REFERENCE GROUPS

1. INFORMAL REFERENCE GROUPS - it is based on the groups shared interests and goals. Members react on a personal level.

   Examples are family and friends

2. FORMAL REFERENCE GROUPS - Have a specific goal or mission.

   Examples are Employee Union.

3. MEMBERSHIP REFERENCE GROUPS - groups that are in agreement with in regards to attitude, norms, and behaviors.

4. DISCLAIMANT REFERENCE GROUPS - group we do not agree with in regards to attitude, norms, and behaviors.

5. ASPIRATIONAL REFERENCE GROUPS - a group of individuals doesn’t belong to but aspires to become a part of it in the future.

TYPES OF REFERENCE GROUPS

6. DISSOCIATIVE REFERENCE GROUPS - a group an individual doesn’t belong to and disapproves of in regards to attitudes, norms, and behaviors.

SOCIAL NETWORKS

• an individual’s scope, or total set of relationship with others.

• indicates the ways in which they are connected through various social familiarities ranging from casual acquaintances to close familial bonds.

• a map of all of the relevant ties between the individuals within and beyond society.

• is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies. It is a social structure exists between actors ( individuals and organization

MICRO

• Smallest level of analysis of social networks. It explains that a social network typically starts with and individual.

• The micro level is divided into four levels.

​Three Levels of Analysis

• DYADIC LEVEL – social relationship starts with two individuals

• TRIADIC LEVEL – social relationship starts with three individuals

• ACTOR LEVEL – the smallest unit of analysis in a social network is an individual in their social setting

• SUBSET LEVEL – may focus on distance and reachability, cliques, cohesive subgroups , or other group actions or behaviors.

MESO - This level of analysis begins with a population size that falls between the micro and macro- levels.

Examples of meso-level of analysis :

• ORGANIZATIONS – group of people that has distributive tasks for a collective goal

• SCALE FREE NETWORKS – a network whose degree, distribution follows a power law, at least asymptotical.

MACRO - Generally, traces the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or other resource transfer interactions over a large population

• Social distance - used to measure the degree of closeness or acceptance we feel toward other group. While most often used with reference to racial groups.

• Personal Space and how people use it to define their boundaries:

  • Personal space - defined as an area surrounding an individual, regarded and valued as private, inaccessible to the others without causing some sort of discomfort (Sommer 1969, Hayduk 1983).

  • 4 Different Distance Zones (Edward Hall)

    • Intimate Distance – about 18 inches from the body – for lovemaking, comforting and protecting.

    • Personal Distance – from 18 inches to 4 feet – for friends, acquaintances and ordinary conversations.

    • Social Distance – from 4 feet to 12 feet – for impersonal or formal relationships such as in a workplace.

    • Public Distance – beyond 12 feet – for even more formal relationship such as public speakers from the general public.