Formulating counterclaims

• To be an effective critical thinker, it is not enough just to be able to identify claims and assertions. The ability to analyze an argument is essential to understanding the text more deeply, but understanding the claim is not the only facet of the argument. You must also learn to analyze the counterclaims and evidence provided in the text.

• Being able to recognize and formulate counterclaims in response to an argument is a characteristic of a good critical reader.

T. Heyrosa

Reading and Writing Skills

Claims and counterclaims

• A claim is the main argument.

• A counterclaim is the opposite of the argument, or the opposing argument.

• A reason tells why the claim is made and is supported by the evidence.

• Evidence is the facts or research to support your claim.

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Reading and Writing Skills

Example

• CLAIM: 'Mom, I really need a new cell phone!'

• ​COUNTERCLAIMS: No, you don't. 'Your current situation does not require a new cell phone.'

• ​REASON: My current cellphone doesn't provide Internet access.

• EVIDENCE:

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Reading and Writing Skills

claim-counterclaim pattern

• It refers to the structure of an argument where there is more than one side to a debate.

• In a claim-counterclaim text, arguments are typically introduced using reporting verbs.

• Writers may also use evidence to support their claims.

T. Heyrosa

Reading and Writing Skills

Example of claim-counterclaim pattern

​The theoretical formulations on social capital of Bourdieu, Coleman and Putnam have greatly contributed to the currency of the concept. Yet, while the concept enjoys an expanding popularity in interdisciplinary research, conceptual ambiguity and misspecification persists. Lack of agreement in defining social capital is reflected in the operationalisation of the concept. While many refer to ‘social capital’ or ‘measures’ thereof, they are unlikely to refer to the same thing or that the measures employed are reliable, valid or comparable. This is all the more evident in Putnam’s formulation and the body of research it has generated. This review argues that such research is plagued by unresolved measurement issues which do not help to clarify the nature of the concept. This critical review addresses the similarities and differences among the theoretical formulations of the three prominent theorists focusing on empirical research that assigns a causal role to social capital. It is argued that as a concept, social capital offers great potential but it cannot be treated as an aggregate trait of large collectivities. Aggregate measures of social capital lack both reliability and validity and are inconsistent with theory.

(Adapted from: Tzanakis, M. (2013). Social Capital in Bourdieu's, Coleman's and Putnam's Theory: empirical evidence and emergent measurement issues. Educate 13(3), pp. 2-23.)

T. Heyrosa

Reading and Writing Skills

(cont...)

• ​Additionally, a writer will also evaluate the claims that are presented. For example, the sentence below indicates a negative evaluation of the concept of social capital:

  ​

  This review argues that such research is plagued by unresolved measurement issues which do not help to clarify the nature of the concept.

T. Heyrosa

Reading and Writing Skills

SIGNPOSTS

• There is (a lack of) agreement (between/on) + noun

• This (essay) argues that (+ clause)

• There has been much debate (on/about/over) + noun

• It is evident that (+ clause)

• It is unclear if (+ clause)

• Reporting verbs

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Reading and Writing Skills

reporting verbs

• Show that (+ clause)

• Argue that (+ clause)

• Claim that ( (+ clause)

• Believe that (+ clause)

• Observe (+ noun)

• Suggest that (+ clause)

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Reading and Writing Skills

connectors

• Subordinate conjunctions (while, although + clause)

• Adverbs (In contrast, however)

• Prepositions (Despite + noun/-ing)

• Coordinating conjunctions (but, yet)

T. Heyrosa

Reading and Writing Skills

fallacies

Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.

• Either/or

• ​Ad hominem

• Ad populum/Bandwagon Appeal​

• Red Herring​

• Straw Man​

• Moral Equivalence​

• Slippery Slope

• Hasty Generalization

• Post hoc ergo propter hoc

• Genetic Fallacy

• Begging the Claim

• Circular Argument

patterns of fallacious argument

Reading and Writing Skills

parts of evaluative essay

evaluation essay, evaluative report, critical evaluation essay

1. Judgment

2. Criteria

3. Evidence​

Reading and Writing Skills

Replace this with a header

Some text here about the topic of discussion

Replace this text with your body text.

​Duplicate this text as many times as you would like.

​Subheader text

Replace this text with your body text.

​Duplicate this text as many times as you would like.

​Subheader text

components of an evaluative essay

evaluation essay, evaluative report, critical evaluation essay

1. Introduction

2. Background Information​

3. Criteria​

4. Conclusion​

Reading and Writing Skills

steps in writing an evaluative essay

evaluation essay, evaluative report, critical evaluation essay

1. Choose a topic.

2. Formulate the thesis.​

3. Think of the conditions.

4. Find supporting evidence

5. Prepare a rough draft, organize the criteria, and the evidence found.

6. Follow the three-part structure.​

Reading and Writing Skills

Tips on Using Text to Illustrate Your Point

1. Referencing

2. Paraphrasing

3. Summarizing

4. Quoting

Reading and Writing Skills

Tips on Using Text to Illustrate Your Point

1. Make sure that the authoritative information you choose is accurate and relevant to your point.

2. Integrate direct quotes into the language of your writing.

3. ​Connect or relate the evidence to your claim to help your readers understand your point.​

4. Choose the type that would strongly support your point. ​

Reading and Writing Skills