Gross structure of the excretory system to include:

• Mammals – kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

• Birds – kidneys, ureters, cloaca.

Nephron

• Structure

• Ultrafiltration

• Role of loop of Henle (including adaptations to length)

• Action of ADH in osmoregulation

Removal of nitrogenous waste in mammals and birds

• Uric acid

• Urea

Nephritis and liver cirrhosis.

• Symptoms

• Effects

Normal temperature ranges in (endothermic) mammals and birds 

Thermoregulation

• Negative feedback

• Heat loss and heat gain centres in the hypothalamus

• Thermoreceptors

Warming and Cooling

• Evaporative; sweat production, gular fluttering and panting

• Pili erector muscles in erection or flattening of feathers or hairs

• Overall effect of seasonal plumage/coat changes

• Basic mechanism of shivering, role of brown adipose tissue

• Effect of changes in metabolic rate

• Behavioural changes

• Mechanism and effect of vasodilation or vasoconstriction of arterioles next to the skin

Warming and Cooling

• Contribution of countercurrent mechanisms to heat regulation.

Hypothermia and Hyperthermia

• Symptoms, causes and consequences