The Four Caliphs

By the time of Muhammad's death, most of central and southwestern Arabia was under the control of Muslims.  Now, his followers had to choose a new leader to preserve the community.  After much debate, Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and father-in-law, was selected.

Abu Bakr became the first caliph (KAY-lif), or Muslim ruler. He and the three leaders who followed him came to be known to a large group of Muslims as the “rightly guided” caliphs. These caliphs were said to have followed the Qur'an and the example of Muhammad. The Muslim government led by the caliphs was called the caliphate.

When some tribes tried to break away, Abu Bakr used military force to reunite the community. He also completed the unification of Arabia. Then Muslims began to carry the teachings of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

unification: the process of joining two or more things together

After Abu Bakr died in 634, Caliph Umar (ooh-MAR) continued to expand the Muslim empire by conquest, which allowed Muslims to gain new lands and resources.   By 643, the Muslim empire included lands in Iraq, Persia, the eastern Mediterranean, and North Africa.  Umar established governments and tax systems in all these provinces.  Among the taxes was one levied on Jews and Christians and other non-Muslims.  Umar often let Jews and Christians practice their beliefs as they liked within their own homes and places of worship, but more often forced other religions to convert.  In Egypt, treaties allowed for freedom of worship in exchange for the payment of tribute.  Later, Muslims completed similar treaties with the Nubians, a people who lived to the south of Egypt.

Upon Umar's death in 644, Uthman, who was a member of the Umayyad (ooh-MY-ed) clan, became the third caliph.  He attempted to unite Muslims by overseeing the creation of an official edition of the Qur'an.  But he also awarded high posts to relatives, and people in the provinces complained that he ruled unfairly.  Discontent spread, and rebels killed Uthman in 656.

Ali ibn Abi Talib (AH-lee i-ben ah-bee TAH-lib), Muhammad's cousin, and his daughter Fatima's husband, agreed to become the fourth caliph.  Some important Muslims challenged his rule, which led to civil war.  Ali sent forces against them, fought two major battles, and won one.  But when he ended the other through negotiation, he lost supporters.  In 661, one of these former supporters murdered Ali.