Culture has been synonymous with nations, races, and ethnic groups.

Nations have traditionally been defined in terms of their common identity, values, customs, languages, and geographic boundaries  

How nations’ ethnic groups interact and resolve disagreements is determined largely by the cultural reservoirs or the lack of them. 

A cultural reservoir may be defined as an accumulation of goodwill and understanding that emanates from a common set of values, beliefs, attitudes, historical experiences, and racial and ethnic links.

A distinction can be made between material culture and non-material culture

• Material culture - The tangible products of human society, such as monuments and visual accomplishments

• Nonmaterial culture - The intangible products of society, such as values and rules of right and wrong behavior.

  • In most countries, culture is generally equated with civilization.

 Culture is generally defined as a set of shared learned values, beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, modes of living, customs, and symbols. 

This question, though routine, goes to the heart of identity and belonging.

• Do you belong to this society?

• Are you foreign?

Ethnocentrism

• All societies, directly and indirectly, promote their values as positive and desirable while, simultaneously, devaluing those of other societies.

  • This behavior is referred to as ethnocentrism.

Positive images of one’s society are developed and reinforced by rewards for conformity

• Ken Booth contends that each society views itself as the center of the world, perceives and interprets other societies within its peculiar frame of reference, and invariably judges them to be inferior.

  • The more culturally distinct the other society is perceived to be, the more inferior it is often deemed to be and thus suitable for negative treatment... 

This perception is at the heart of ethnic conflicts and international wars. 

14.2.Clashing Civilizations

According to the clash-of-civilizations perspective, global conflicts occur due to cultural differences.

A civilization is broadly defined as a cultural entity that, despite variations within it, is distinct from another civilization. 

Huntington states that "a civilization is the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguished humans from other species"

Civilizations are defined by a common objective.

• Elements, such as language, history, religion, customs, institutions, and by the subjective self-identification of people.”

From Huntington’s perspective, there are eight major civilizations:

• Western

• Confucian

• Japanese

• Islamic

• Hindu

• Slavic-Orthodox

• Latin American

• African

Religion, a foundation of civilizations, is regarded by Huntington as essentially pure and unaffected by other religions.

 Religious communities have become vigorous creators of an emergent transnational civil society.”